The Struggles of Early America: Building a Nation from Conflict and Crisis 🇺🇸

The Year 1787: A New Nation's Growing Pains 🌟

It's been eleven years since the United States declared its independence from the British Empire. Yet, for Americans, building a new nation proved to be a daunting challenge. This fledgling republic found itself mired in debt and beset by political and economic turmoil. Unpaid and desperate, veterans of the War of Independence sparked Shays' Rebellion. Though the new federal government survived this crisis, it was hamstrung by the Articles of Confederation—the nation’s first constitution, which severely limited its powers. Later that year, legislators convened in Philadelphia to draft a new U.S. Constitution, empowering the executive branch with much stronger authority. In the meanwhile, in the newly proclaimed "Northwest Territory" of America, yet another crisis was brewing. Theoretically, this vast region had been ceded to the United States by the British after the Revolutionary War. Stretching from the Appalachian Mountains in the east to the Mississippi River in the west, and from the Great Lakes in the north to the Ohio River in the south, it spanned 300,000 square miles of untamed, resource-rich land, primed for expansion. The federal government planned to sell this land to settlers to pay off its enormous Revolutionary War debts—around $40 million in total.

The Lust for Land and the First Problem of Expansion 🌲

No shortage of demand existed—thousands of settlers were eager to travel west, build farms and new towns, and start fresh lives on the frontier. Yet, a significant problem loomed. Thousands of settlers had already illegally moved into the Northwest Territory, and the Native American tribes living there fiercely resisted any intrusion into their ancestral homelands. The United States stumbled into a war of conquest for which it was woefully unprepared—and grossly underestimated its adversaries.

The Escalation of Conflict: American Militia vs. Native Resistance ⚔️

European settlers had been encroaching on Native American lands for nearly two hundred years, leading to endemic violence. Some eastern tribes were almost obliterated. The Revolutionary War, where most Native Americans sided with the British, saw intense fighting along the frontier. Warriors from tribes like the Miami, Shawnee, and Lenape targeted American settlements along the Ohio River, aiming to drive away intruders. Local militia companies—part-time settler-soldiers—responded with retaliatory raids. One notorious incident in 1782 occurred at Gnadenhutten, where Pennsylvania militiamen massacred 96 Christian-converted Lenape men, women, and children. Native American raids could be equally brutal. Hundreds of casualties on both sides fueled a cycle of violence that continued year after year. But the American government was now determined to impose "orderly and secure settlement of the region." Most importantly, it intended to begin selling land to settlers, corporations, and speculators. Since independence, the American government had imposed a series of one-sided treaties on Native Americans, claiming their land through "right of conquest" and using bribery, threats, and violence to get its way. Congress took a step further by officially establishing the Northwest Territory with clear rules for its survey and settlement.

Organizing for Resistance: The Northwest Confederacy 🛡️

Under the leadership of Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, the tribes organized into the "Northwest Confederacy." They rejected and denounced U.S. treaties and the new plans for settlement, resolutely holding the line against U.S. settlement at the Ohio River and prepared to fight to maintain it. As violence erupted across the Northwest Territory, it fell to America's first president, George Washington, to find a solution to the escalating conflict. Inaugurated as the first President of the United States in April 1789, George Washington faced many daunting challenges during his first term, chief among them being the national debt and the factions forming within his cabinet. The escalating crisis in the Northwest Territory had now joined the list. Washington declared his desire to treat Native Americans with honor and justice. However, he simultaneously could not allow anything to stand in the way of the republic’s security or expansion. A powerful association of land speculators, including his Secretary of War Henry Knox, lobbied him for action. Their concern was that violence in the Northwest Territory would harm their investments.

The Fateful Expedition of General Harmar 🚶‍♂️

In 1789, a final effort was made to convince the tribes to sign away their lands, but the negotiations at Fort Harmar were boycotted by the most powerful tribes. So, in the summer of 1790, Washington authorized military action. He ordered the U.S. Army to launch a "punitive expedition"—a show of force to deter further Native American attacks on American settlers. This was essentially an order for invasion. The command of the expedition fell to Brevet Brigadier General Josiah Harmar, the nation’s highest-ranking army officer. A distinguished Revolutionary War veteran who served with Washington at Valley Forge, Harmar was also reportedly a heavy drinker. He insisted on his troops following European warfare models, relying on tight formations and drills, which were entirely unsuitable for frontier warfare. The forces at Harmar’s disposal were extremely limited. The victorious Continental Army that had beaten the British had long since disbanded. In its place, Congress authorized the formation of a single infantry regiment—about 700 men. Hence, most of Harmar's expedition would consist of militia from Kentucky and Pennsylvania. Few were experienced frontiersmen—rather, they were often those without the means or wit to avoid militia service. Many were either too old or too young, poorly trained, and inexperienced in woodland combat—a stark contrast to the enemy they were soon to encounter.

The Surprise Factor of the Native Confederacy 😲

General Harmar planned to march his forces north from Fort Washington—across 150 miles of predominantly forested trails—to destroy the Miami settlement at Kiihkayonki. He would be supported by another mixed force of regulars and militia, 330 men commanded by Major Hamtramck, marching from Vincennes. On October 7, 1790, Harmar set out on the first major U.S. military operation since independence. After an eight-day march, his forces arrived at the Miami village at Kiihkayonki, only to find it burned and abandoned. The Miami had destroyed their homes and seemingly vanished. However, Harmar's troops were being watched. Hundreds of Northwest Confederacy warriors assembled to resist the U.S. attack, led by Miami war chief Little Turtle, Shawnee chief Blue Jacket, and Buckongahelas of the Lenape. These leaders and their fighters were determined, well-armed, and intimately familiar with every inch of their homeland. Meanwhile, 150 miles to the southwest, Hamtramck's militia rebelled, refusing to advance further into the woods, forcing him to turn back. General Harmar was left alone. His force spent four days burning villages in the area and destroying any food stores they could find. Then, on October 19, one of his companies fell into an ambush. Attacked by more than a hundred warriors, 150 militia turned and fled, with a single platoon of regulars standing their ground and being massacred. Around 30 American soldiers were killed, and another 40 militia went missing. Two days later, Harmar decided his mission was complete and set off back to Fort Washington. Hours later, his scouts reported that villagers were returning to Kiihkayonki. Hoping to finally engage and defeat the enemy, Harmar’s troops launched a dawn attack. Expecting to have the element of surprise, they instead stumbled into another ambush. In the ensuing chaotic fighting, more than 100 American soldiers were killed, scalped, and left where they had fallen.

Understanding the Brutality: Scalping and Its Origins 🪓

Today, many mistakenly believe scalping was an exclusively Native American practice. In fact, it had been widely adopted by European settlers for over a century, often encouraged by colonial authorities who paid bounties for Native scalps as proof of death. What had begun as a ritual practice amongst certain tribes had become far more widespread and was now routinely carried out by both sides in frontier wars. Harmar returned with his shattered force to Fort Washington and claimed success. After all, he had destroyed five Miami villages and substantial granary stores—a significant blow to the tribes, causing considerable hardship that winter. Yet, others saw it differently. The expedition went down in history as "Harmar's Defeat" and was, at the time, the greatest U.S. loss to Native Americans. Harmar was later exonerated by a military court, but his reputation never recovered.

St. Clair's Expedition: A New Hope and a Grim Reality 📜

That winter, both sides continued their raids across the Northwest Territory. In January 1791, at Big Bottom, Lenape and Wyandot warriors killed twelve settlers, including two children. Such attacks spread alarm across the Territory and threatened the entire U.S. settlement project, on which powerful interests now depended. Settlers were afraid to travel west, and land speculators rose in arms. President Washington now turned to the Northwest Territory's governor, the 54-year-old Scottish-born Arthur St. Clair. St. Clair had considerable military experience. Like Washington, he had served as a British officer in the French and Indian War, assaulting the heights of Quebec with General Wolfe in '59. Joining the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, he crossed the Delaware with Washington. However, his record was blemished in 1777 by his decision to abandon Fort Ticonderoga to the British without a fight. St. Clair now suffered from severe gout, but it didn’t deter President Washington from giving him the rank of Major General and ordering a second expedition against the Northwest Confederacy.

The Stakes Raised: Annihilation or Submission 🌌

This time, the tribes were to be given a harsh and clear lesson: respect U.S. demands or face annihilation. Congress authorized the raising of a second regular infantry regiment for the expedition. However, the allure of frontier service proved so unappealing that it was impossible to recruit enough men to fill its ranks. St. Clair’s forces would number not the 3,000 or 4,000 initially envisaged, but around 2,000. These included 500 regular infantry from the First and Second Regiments, 100 mounted dragoons, and ten 3-pound and 6-pound cannons. The Levy Regiments 1 and 2 provided 800 short-term volunteers, although nearly all were raw recruits. From the militia, Pennsylvanian Captain Faulkner's sharpshooters were experienced frontier fighters. Unfortunately, there were only 60 of them, while most of the 400 Kentucky militiamen were entirely inexperienced.

Preparing for Conflict: U.S. Forces and Native Strategies 🎯

The Northwest Confederacy knew that their victory over General Harmar would not go unanswered, and they prepared for another U.S. onslaught. For the tribes, it was a daunting prospect—a struggle for survival, knowing their families, villages, and livelihoods would be indiscriminately targeted. However, the mutual threat united warriors from a dozen tribes, about 1400 in total, making it one of the largest Native American armies ever assembled on the frontier. Miami war chief Little Turtle would again play a leading role, alongside Blue Jacket and Buckongahelas. The war chiefs organized their warriors by tribe and language, all well-armed. Many bore Brown Bess muskets supplied by the British at Fort Detroit. For close combat, they carried clubs, tomahawks, and knives. Many warriors painted their faces before battle, a ritual preparation for combat meant to terrify the enemy.

The Imminent Clash: Orders and Challenges 📆

In the summer of 1791, St. Clair's orders were to leave Fort Washington no later than July 10 and return to the Miami villages at Kiihkayonki. President Washington specifically warned him to be vigilant for ambushes. Once St. Clair eliminated all resistance at Kiihkayonki, he was to build and garrison a fort with 1,200 men, enabling the U.S. to exert control over the area and counteract British influence from Fort Detroit. The British had been expected to evacuate this post after the Revolutionary War, but they had not and used it to encourage and support Native American resistance against the U.S. Yet, St. Clair's expedition was in trouble even before it could set out. The U.S. Army's supply system relied on private contractors, most shamelessly corrupt. Pocketing the majority of the funds meant for the expedition, St. Clair faced serious shortages of food, ammunition, and equipment. Valuable weeks were lost while he scrambled to secure the necessary supplies and intensively trained the raw recruits in his force.

Final Preparations: Preemptive Strikes and Native Unity 🌌

Two preparatory strikes were launched against the Native Americans. In May, Brigadier General Charles Scott led a mounted militia raid, burning several villages and taking 41 hostages for future negotiations. Two months later, Lieutenant Wilkinson led a second raid, burning more villages and crops. They captured 34 hostages, including the daughter of the Miami war chief, Little Turtle. These raids intended to distract the tribes and keep them off balance before the main assault. However, they merely succeeded in angering and uniting the Northwest Confederacy more than ever. As St. Clair’s army finally set out, their resolve hardened.

St. Clair vs. the Northwest Confederacy: The Ultimate Test 🧗‍♂️

St. Clair’s forces were diverse but ill-prepared for the looming conflict. Despite the odds, the commander hoped for a successful campaign to secure and settle the contested Northwest Territory. The expedition set the stage for a monumental clash—a battle not just for land, but for the future of both the United States and the Native American tribes steadfastly defending their ancestral homes. This encounter would reverberate through time, shaping the path of a fledgling nation as it wrestled with justice, honor, and survival amidst its early tribulations.

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